The reasons for the fall of Communism and the USSR Essay

The purposes behind the fall of Communism and the USSR - Essay Example Anyway very soon, it was removed by Joseph Stalin in the year 1927 and such principle got finished in the year 1991. The year 1991is a noteworthy year for the residents of Soviet Union as USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) likewise viewed as Soviet Union Collapsed. It is viewed as probably the biggest nation that crumbled because of the abrupt impact of an atomic super force subsequently breaking the whole world. Along these lines, it is one of the most notable dates throughout the entire existence of Soviet Russia (Lorimer, The Collapse of ‘Communism’ in the USSR â€Å"Causes and Significance†). This paper chiefly features the explanations behind the fall of the communalism and USSR of Soviet Russia alongside the advantages and disadvantages of such a breakdown. Other than this, it likewise features the impact of such a breakdown in the whole world in both positive and negative ways. Aside from this, a little assessment part is likewise introduced in the exposition to assess the positive and negative impacts of such a breakdown alongside an end also. History of Soviet Union The Soviet Union appeared from the unrest happened in the long stretch of October that toppled the Russian Provisional government and subsequently, the Soviet Party came into power. It was overwhelmed by Bolsheviks and followed by Russian common war. The Soviet Union is likewise customarily viewed as the replacement of the Russian Empire (Lorimer, The Collapse of ‘Communism’ in the USSR â€Å"Causes and Significance†). The Soviet Union was governed by the last Russian Tsar named Nichol as II from March 1917 to 1922. Toward the year's end 1922, the antecedent to Soviet Union appeared as the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, an autonomous nation. Thusly, in 1922, the nation of Soviet Union grew mostly because of the association of a few neighboring nations, for example, Russia, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Transcaucasian Soviet Republic. In this way, after World War II, both Soviet Union and United States got occupied with cold war as they attempted to make their individual impact in the whole world. The whole national governmental issues around then was ruled by the gatherings of the Cold War and the prime reason for this U.S.â€USSR battle was to achieve planetary authority of their individual socioâ€economic frameworks just as thrashing of the authoritative ranges of authority of the nation. Around then, notwithstanding the nearness of Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), a five-year arranged economy involving a (post-New Economic Policy), and renouncement of the Molotovâ€Ribbentrop Pact mystery conventions, stayed as the principle character of Soviet society till 1985 (Lorimer, The Collapse of ‘Communism’ in the USSR â€Å"Causes and Significance†). Right now, all together increase impact Soviet Union broadened their most extreme control over Eastern Europe and Cuba and furthermore an impressive control was additionally kept up over the residents of the nation. Around then, the nation was managed by Leonid Brezhnev known as Brezhnev Era, experienced high monetary development and thriving, however before long finished with an exceptionally more fragile Soviet Union confronting various social, political, and financial issues. Alongside this, the normal yearly pay additionally brought down, bringing about a very wrecking condition inside the nation. Then again, United States investigated different pieces of the world to broaden their line of impact and force. Hence, it might be portrayed from the abo ve situation, that inspite of various best rulers, the social and financial state of Soviet Union may not be

At the very back of your eye is the retina

At the rear of your eye is the retina. It's about the size of a postage stamp, and it contains a large number of cells that are touchy to light. Some of these phones are called cones. Cones let you see shading by joining the three principle hues (red, blue, and green) to make a large number of hues, from the orange of your macaroni and cheddar to the turquoise of a tropical fish.Even despite the fact that numerous individuals imagine that being visually challenged implies an individual can't see any shading, this isn't correct. Not many visually challenged individuals see life the manner in which it is on an old high contrast TV appear. Rather, the vast majority who are visually challenged simply have a tough time differentiating between certain colors.If you don't have the right synthetic concoctions during the cones, they may not let you see the correct number of primary hues. A great many people who are visually challenged can't see red or green. For model, when a child who is visually challenged takes a gander at a green leaf, he sees a leaf that is either an unbiased shading (like a light tan) or a shade of dim. visual imperfection bringing about the failure to recognize hues. About 8% of men and 0.5% of ladies experience some trouble in shading discernment. Visual impairment is typically an acquired sex-connected trademark, transmitted through, however passive in, females. Procured visual weakness results from certain degenerative ailments of the eyes. A large portion of those with faulty shading vision are just somewhat partially blind to red and green, i.e., they have a constrained capacity to recognize rosy and greenish conceals. The individuals who are totally partially blind to red and green see both hues as a shade of yellow. Totally visually challenged people can perceive just dark, white, and shades of dim. Visual impairment is normally not identified with visual keenness; it is critical, thusly, just when people who experience the ill effects of it look for work in occupations where shading acknowledgment is significant, such...

The Definition of Random Assignment In Psychology

The Definition of Random Assignment In Psychology Student Resources Study Guides and Tips Print The Definition of Random Assignment According to Psychology By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on September 17, 2019 Materio/ Getty Images More in Student Resources Study Guides and Tips APA Style and Writing Careers Random assignment?? refers to the use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group. Study participants are randomly assigned to different groups, such as the experimental group, or treatment group. Random assignment might involve such tactics as flipping a coin, drawing names out of a hat, rolling dice, or assigning random numbers to participants. It is important to note that random assignment?? differs from random selection. While random selection refers to how participants are randomly chosen to represent the larger population, random assignment refers to how those chosen participants are then assigned to experimental groups. How Does Random Assignment Work in a Psychology Experiment? To determine if changes in one variable lead to changes in another variable, psychologists must perform an experiment. Researchers often begin by forming a testable hypothesis predicting that one variable of interest will have some impact on another variable. The variable that the experimenters will manipulate in the experiment is known as the independent variable while the variable that they will then measure is known as the dependent variable. While there are different ways to look at relationships between variables, an experiment is the best way to get a clear idea if there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. Once researchers have formulated a hypothesis, conducted background research, and chosen an experimental design, it is time to find participants for their experiment. How exactly do researchers decide who will be part of an experiment? As mentioned previously, this is often accomplished through something known as random selection. In order to generalize the results of an experiment to a larger group, it is important to choose a sample that is representative of the qualities found in that population. For example, if the total population is 51 percent female and 49 percent male, then the sample should reflect those same percentages. Choosing a representative sample is often accomplished by randomly picking people from the population to be participants in a study. Random selection means that everyone in the group stands an equal chance of being chosen. Once a pool of participants has been selected, it is time to assign them into groups. By randomly assigning the participants into groups, the experimenters can be sure that each group will be the same before the independent variable is applied. Participants might be randomly assigned to the control group, which does not receive the treatment in question. Or they might be randomly assigned to the experimental group, which does receive the treatment. Random assignment increases the likelihood that the two groups are the same at the outset, that way any changes that result from the application of the independent variable can be assumed to be the result of the treatment of interest. Example of Random Assignment Imagine that a researcher is interested in learning whether or not drinking caffeinated beverages prior to an exam will improve test performance. After randomly selecting a pool of participants, each person is randomly assigned to either the control group or the experimental group.The participants in the control group consume a placebo drink prior to the exam that does not contain any caffeine. Those in the experimental group, on the other hand, consume a caffeinated beverage before taking the test.Participants in both groups then take the test and the researcher compares the results to determine if the caffeinated beverage had any impact on test performance. A Word From Verywell Random assignment plays an  important role in the psychology research process.?? Not only does this process help eliminate possible sources of bias, but it also makes it easier to generalize the results of a tested sample population to a larger population. Random assignment?? helps ensure that members of each group in the experiment are the same, which means that the groups are also likely more representative of what is present in the larger population. Through the use of this technique, psychology researchers are able to study complex phenomena and contribute to our understanding of the human mind and behavior.

William Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet - 1868 Words

From the 16th century to the 21st century, concepts of good parenting have drastically changed. In Romeo and Juliet, parenting takes an unusual approach as the children are treated in many different ways. Several couples in Shakespeare’s book, have experienced raising a child. While some raise their children with every second of their attention, others, including the Capulets, leave their child with a nanny. Not having a stable relationship with parents has often been the cause of feeling isolated; this is how Juliet feels when growing up, especially being an only child. After the lack of parenting in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Juliet has been raised by her nurse, not had her parents’ influential presence in her life, and has†¦show more content†¦This caused a little bit of tension, especially since Lady Capulet was constantly pressuring Juliet to meet Paris and decide if he would be a suitable husband for her; she kept giving compliments on how handsome he looked. Lady Capulet described Paris’ book of love as him being an â€Å"unbound lover† and that he â€Å"lacks a cover,† meaning Juliet (1.3) While Lady Capulet is destined to make Paris her new son-in-law, Juliet is still unsure if she can love the man. This shows that the Nurse has a better relationship with Juliet than anyone else; she knows what Juliet is thinking while her mother is trying to convince her to marry some guy that she’s never met before. When Juliet meets Romeo later that night, everything changes. Before long, Juliet decides to send her Nurse out to meet with Romeo because she trusts her the most out of everyone. After a while, she notices that the Nurse is taking an awfully long time. She worries that maybe she couldn’t find Romeo or that she couldn’t meet him. When the Nurse finally does come back with news, she is out of breath and panting hard. She teases Juliet a little bit by not giving her a direc t response. The Nurse wanted Juliet to give her a break so that she could take a breath while complaining about how her â€Å"bones ache† and the tiring â€Å"jaunce† that she had experienced (2.5). When the Nurse finally settles down and tells Juliet that she met Romeo, they discuss the details. This connection between Juliet and the

Aging and Sexuality Essay - 2548 Words

Many researchers often ask the question, Is sex more important than life itself? In my opinion, I think it could very well be. The procreation and continuation of our species and it s evolution in life will play powerful roles in our development of our lifespan, health and well-being. The desire and intimacy intinct of a male and a female also contribute to the species success. The measures we take to advertise ourselves to the other sex is whats very species specific but unique when viewing sexual appeal. Popular theory of reason for the differences in gender of a woman; is that she is to be selective in the choosing multiple willing suitors to her one egg or offspring. On the other end of the continumn is the competing or†¦show more content†¦I found similar results to those of the website. The two questions that gave significant results following the ageism trend was #9 and #11: Growing old is a natural part of life and The thought of becoming old or older distres ses me Both of these questions consisitently were answered strongly agree. Finding above a ninety percentile agreement supports my old views and adds to the ageism that still existing today. The fact is that is was normal for my grandparents to be doing what they were doing. Being old does not extinquish the passion for having sex. However, it is act of thinking about old people having sex that does. Physical and Psysiological Changes If the spirits are willing but the flesh is weak. This quote is a possibility of aging and its physical and psyiological processes. A woman and a mans features change as they age but many of these changes are innate and are more biologically influenced by the aging process. Although, men tend to have more changes that happen to their body than women, but both have changes. Common and most frequent changes in men that occur are the decreased production of testosterone, size reduction and firmness of the testicles (Texas Tech University, 1998). More common complications involve getting or maintaining erections as a result of the increased prostate glands (Zeiss, 2003). As we grow old into the latter years of our adulthood,Show MoreRelatedBiological, Psychological, And Socio Environmental Factors785 Words   |  4 Pagesbeliefs of the aging body. American society idealizes the youthful body images leaving older adults to feel ashamed of their sexuality. Many older adults engage in sexual activity with a partner. However, desire decreases with relationship longevity. Furthermore, the loss of a partner may decrease sexual interests. DeLamater and Moorman reported similar results in subsequent research in 2007. This study supports the theory that maintaining sexuality intimacy in aging is important to aging health.Read MoreThe Struggles And Needs Elderly Lgbt Individuals Face And Its Effect On Their Aging Process1334 Words   |  6 Pagesface many issues that others do not. Not only do they face discrimination due to their sexuality, but also due to their age and/or gender. The intersectionality of sexuality, age, and/or gender can cause many physical, mental, and emotional health issues which require social work intervention. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the struggles and needs elderly LGBT individuals face and its effect on their aging process. This can be achieved by applying theoretical frameworks such as Erickson’s StagesRead MoreM yth on Aging Essay1593 Words   |  7 PagesThere are many misconceptions when we talk about sex especially to old age generation. During the first day of class in HS 107, we talked about myths on aging. According to many people, they believed that â€Å"Majority of old people have no interest in, nor capacity for, sexual relations† (Facts on Aging Quiz). In our society, many people believe that older adults do not have sex when they reach the certain old age. Many argue that as you grow older your body becomes frail, thus, decreasing and diminishingRead MoreSexuality Within The Older Population1475 Words   |  6 Pages Sexuality within the Older Population Jonelle S. Allen LaSalle University Introduction Sexuality is an important core dimension of life that incorporates beliefs, cultures, rituals, attitudes, values, intimacy and pleasure. The expression of sexuality along with the desire for intimacy can be very complex especially for the older adult. Sexual dysfunction among older men and women commonly increases with age along withRead MoreA Review of Sexuality and the Chronically Ill Older Adult: A Social Justice Issue1341 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction This article â€Å"Sexuality and the Chronically Ill Older Adult: A Social Justice Issue† is published in the journal Sexuality and Disability and the authors are Verna C Pangman and Marilyn Seguire. The article provides an overview and outline on sexuality in the older adult with a chronic illness. In today’s world, according to Verna C Pangman and Marilyn Seguire, sexuality for the older adult and the elderly is a â€Å"taboo† word, and if mentioned, fear and apprehension by the older adultRead MoreSexuality : Human Sexuality, Sexual Orientation And Sexual Behavior1193 Words   |  5 Pages HUMAN SEXUALITY ReNata Shaw APUS: Human Sexuality Assignment 2 Resubmit Dr. Foster November 29, 2015 Human Sexuality Introduction Sexuality encompasses aspects in a person’s life that involves sex and gender identity, sexual orientation and sexual behavior. It encompasses the physical, social and psychological aspects of a person’s sexual behavior. It underpins what an individual is, affects the individual’s life wholesomely and is unique to each and every individualRead MoreThe Best Exotic Marigold Hotel1681 Words   |  7 Pagesbe the major theme that predominated throughout the film was that being older does not mean that life ends. There are different issues that are dealt with when aging, but that does not necessarily entitle growing and transforming have ended. Each character in the film were dealing with a variety of changes, some which dealt with the aging process and some that can happen at any time in ones life (Hoffman, 2012). Generational Themes There were many generational themes that came to light within thisRead MoreResearch Paper : North Carolina Central University1376 Words   |  6 PagesOutline FCSG 5820 North Carolina Central University I. Introduction (2 pages) Sexuality in aging is an interesting topic being that everyone will age and the information is vital to know. Countless amounts of people want and need to be close to others, as they grow older meaning they yearn to endure a lively, fulfilling sex life. With aging, there might be changes that can produce later difficulties and issues. Typical aging brings physical changes in both men and women. These changes occasionally disturbRead MoreGay, Bisexual, And Transgender Aging : A Comprehensive And Analytical Sociological Perspective On Lgbt Aging849 Words   |  4 Pagesresearch conducted on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender aging (LGBT) and the psychosocial consequences they experience resulting from disparities. The articles, however, differ in that the research takes a one-dimensional approach to an unambiguous issue. Therefore, this paper will focus on the article titled Helping Gay and Transgender People as they Age (McDaniels, 2015) given it offers an interdisciplinary pers pective on LGBT aging. Notably, McDaniels interconnects social, environmental, healthRead MoreReflection Paper On Aging1710 Words   |  7 Pagesthe embodied aging and experience by creating a storyline based on the character, Billy, shared the good news of him finally proposing to his much younger girlfriend with his dearest friends and wanted them to be supportive in his decision-making. All four friends decided to escape from their daily lives a couple of days in order to throw a bachelor party together for Billy in Las Vegas (Last Vegas, 2013). They have been best friends since childhood, yet have experienced a different aging journey (Last

Officer Selection Process Free Essays

Officer selection is a very detailed process. Every police department wants to recruit, select, train, and maintain the best and brightest officers possible. The job of a police officer requires an individual that can deal with stressful situations and the ability to interact with the community. We will write a custom essay sample on Officer Selection Process or any similar topic only for you Order Now The job requires quick decision making and good judgment. Police duties vary from writing reports to maintaining order to responding to criminal situations, all of which require critical thinking skills. Officers should possess certain traits due to the range of duties they will have to perform. These traits include physically agility, the ability to cope with difficult situations, well-developed writing skills, good communication skills, sound judgment, compassion, strong powers of observation, and the ability to both exert and respect commands of authority (Grant Terry, 2008). Every department sets its own standards therefore there is not a set standard for officer selection. The minimum requirements that most departments require that the officer be at least 21 years of age, have a driver’s license in the state or be eligible for one, have no prior felony convictions, and be able to pass a written exam, a medical exam, an interview, a physical agility test, and psychological screening. Individuals must be able to obtain a driver’s license because their primary duty will be patrol and must be twenty one years of age as they will have to qualify for a firearm. A police officer will not have full police powers until at least the age of twenty one, for that reason some departments will not even allow recruits to enter the police academy until they reach that age. A convicted felony is prohibited from possessing a firearm, which thereby bars them from becoming police officers. Most police departments now have educational requirements for recruits. Nearly all departments require officers to have a minimum of a high school diploma, and many require at least some college credits. Officers need to be able to deal with the constant changing law of criminal procedures, and the idea is that the departments need to raise their requirements to keep pace with the rising levels of education in society. With the increase use of technology in policing is another reason for high education among the officers. In most states, small departments send their new officers to a state training academy or program certified by the state. During this time the officer is on probation for a period of a year or two years in which the officer is evaluated. Some of the programs are operated through community colleges. The separate police academies run by the large police departments are similarly certified by the state. Officers who complete state training are then certified or licensed as peace officers in the state. The academy provides formal training during which the recruits who prove to be unqualified are weeded out. During the time at the police academy the officers receive physical training, training in the use of firearms, and training in the systems of patrol and traffic. The officers must learn about the department, its policies, and its relationship with other agencies such as state, county, federal. Once out of the academy, the police officer is assigned a field training officer (FTO). The FTO assist the new officer in using the knowledge and skills learned at the academy. The FTO also assist the new officer to acclimate into the police culture, and experience the socialization process. The FTO’s can have a significant influence over the new officers and assist the officer in dealing with the stress and cynicism that comes with the job. In some states, the officers are required to be Peace Officers Standards and Training (POST) certified as the officers are often confronted with acts of civil disobedience. The promotion process for police officers is very competitive. Officers may be promoted through several methods; these methods may differ from department to department and agency to agency. The officer typically will take a written exam and partake in an interview; the officers are then assessed on qualities relating to the job. The written exam usually is in a multiple choice format. During the interview, a board of several members asks the candidates a variety of questions. These questions may range from information about the candidates background and personal characteristics to judgments about policing situations. After the interview, the candidates are assessed, during which time the candidates are observed, tested, rated, and evaluated. The purpose of these assessment tools is to determine how well the candidate would perform at supervisory levels. Promotions are not based on these factors alone, but are considered in combination with the performance evaluation. Performance evaluations look at the candidate’s quantity and quality of work, work habits, human relations, and ability to accept new situations. The officer selection process has evolved over the past 100 years. The police began actively recruiting women and minorities, implement affirmative action policies to keep the departments as equal opportunities for hiring of police officers. The selection process is similar among the local, state, and federal agencies. The law enforcement departments are all looking for the brightest and best for their departments. The departments require the officers to be healthy of mind and body, ability to learn and adapt to different situations, and have good communication skills with the community. Each agency is willing to train and educate the officers as it is difficult to find the ideal candidate with all the qualities necessary. How to cite Officer Selection Process, Essay examples

Reflection of Learning Based Presentation

Question: Discuss about the Reflection of Learning Based Presentation. Answer: Introduction: During the course of my studies and as part of my academic curriculum, I prepared a report as well as presentation concerning the effects of business communication in an organization. The completed report and presentation was critically examined and subsequent feedbacks were sent to me that in turn helped me to better identify the inherent loopholes in my work thereby offering scopes for rectification and avoidance of future repetitions of the same mistakes. As per the markers comment I primarily recognized that I performed a major mistake by doing the entire task independently, while it was required to be completed as a group assessment. In the report I incorporated an executive summary that was to provide an overview of my discussions throughout the assignment. However, I missed out on including the main findings and recommendations and specific mention of the aspect of business communication that I intended to discuss in the entire report. I became aware that the table of contents needs to be numbered while writing a report. Further, address of specific problem pertaining to the given topic was missing. The main principle of business communication aiming to relaying information between people belonging to both within and outside the organization for the purpose of procuring commercial benefit (Beck, Bennett Wall, 2013). The problems associated with faulty business communication create gaps and loopholes in interacting with the clients as well as people belonging to the organization to deliver the best possible solutions. The primary causes linked to faulty business communication include undefined roles and responsibilities, faulty decision making authorities and processes, poorly designed business procedures, poorly designed organizational framework, improper association among people (Esser Hanitzsch, 2013). Therefore careful address of the identified issues relevant to a particular organization needs to be conducted to foster improved organizational function. The challenges and perspectives in an orga nization vary extensively and prudent and pragmatic organizational and leadership skills of the competent authorities may offer proper solutions to such issues. In referring to the types of business communication I did not mention about the specific models that are integral to the understanding of the given concept. For each of the chosen modes of communication, I forgot to mention the year of their proposal that is a vital aspect to assess the currency and relevancy of their application in the modern context. However I gave descriptions of some chosen models namely the Shannon and Weavers Model, Berlos Model and Schramms Model separately later in the text but lacked detailed meticulous approach and comparative analysis of each of the models. In business industry communication is considered as a vital determinant of smooth operation of the concerned organization (Grunig, 2013). Referring to the Shannon and Weavers Model of Business Communication, mainly six components are identified that mark the passage of communication across various persons consisting of sender, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver and noise. Empirical researches of modern times haves showcased the efficacy of the model across various set ups of the business communication. One such finding has highlighted the efficacy of this model in evaluating the success of the information systems in order to enhance the measurement practice among researchers and managers (DeLone McLean, 2016). As per the propositions of this model the sender after encoding the message is responsible for sending the message to the concerned receiver through an appropriate technological avenue or channel. In simpler words the sender is responsible for converting the message into codes that is plausible to the machine. Ultimately the receiver makes effort to decode the message prior to understanding it and thereafter interpreting meaningful conclusions out of it. In the process the channel may encounter noise that limit the receivers ability to decode the message and hence causing problems in optimum communication. The two ways communication pathway of this model needs to be clearly elaborated to explain the efficacy of this model. I did not refer to this aspect of the model that requires further analysis and description. In my report I had referred to a case study that dealt with the lack of communication issues that accounted for definite problems in the work culture of the given working se ctor. Referring to the case study I should have mentioned the specific and separate roles played by each of the stakeholders in the given circumstance to better understand and scrutinize the roles played by everyone involved in the process. While mentioning about the Berlos model I explained the model but did not connect it to the preceding models that may be referred as a modification of the Shannon and Weavers model. The scopes of this western model of business communication attempts to capture the primary interaction of language, medium, and message that allows communication through the socially structured aspects of each element. Interpersonal communication and mass communication studies may be conducted by means of this model (Bandhiya Joshi, 2016). Hence, I believe that subjected to thorough portrayal of the individual roles of each of the members in a business organization it will be more appropriate and convenient to suggest a suitable model of communication for operation (McQuail Windahl, 2015). Moreover, I think that specific recommendations pertaining to the case study should be provided with utmost clarity and proper justifications to offer feasible solutions to a given scenario. The comments pertaining to the feedbacks received I understood that a thorough understanding related to the significance of business communication is essential. The digital marketing skills gaps relevant to the communication industries have been extensively researched in many studies. The findings highlighted that the seamless blending of digital skills with current marketing strategies is a crucial challenge for the marketing professionals and researchers (Royle Laing, 2014). I gained succinct knowledge for each of the models after careful analysis of the reviewers response. Finally, reviewing the markers comment I find that in conclusion section no new information that has not been elaborately discussed in the preceding text should be provided. In this manner, confusion of the readers in compr ehending a particular topic may be avoided. As per the markers feedback I feel there is room for enough improvement at future hours with further provision for in depth analysis of each of the models related to business communication (Turnitsa, 2013). Hence paying close attention to the feedback received, I came to acquire succinct knowledge regarding the given topic that further enhanced my level of personal understanding and contributed towards personal growth. References Bandhiya, D. B., Joshi, A. (2016). Encompassing the Scope of Western Models of Communication.PARIPEX-Indian Journal of Research,4(9). Beck, A., Bennett, P., Wall, P. (2013).Communication studies: The essential resource. Routledge. DeLone, W. H., McLean, E. R. (2016). Information Systems Success Measurement.Foundations and Trends in Information Systems,2(1), 1-116. Esser, F., Hanitzsch, T. (Eds.). (2013).The handbook of comparative communication research. Routledge. Grunig, J. E. (2013).Excellence in public relations and communication management. Routledge. McQuail, D., Windahl, S. (2015).Communication models for the study of mass communications. Routledge. Royle, J., Laing, A. (2014). The digital marketing skills gap: Developing a Digital Marketer Model for the communication industries.International Journal of Information Management,34(2), 65-73. Turnitsa, C. (2013). Communication model elements for societal behavior representation using agent based models. InProceedings, 2013 Fall Simulation Interoperability Workshop.

Arthur Schopenhaur Essays - Kantianism, Concepts, Metaphysics

Arthur Schopenhaur Schopenhauer had an understanding of the Will, which has to separate parts. The Will to Life and Human Will. The Will to Life, was the over all striving that every animal did on a daily basis, the striving for the will to live. Schopenhauer, believed that the nature of life was suffering and that this suffering was manifested in the will to live. However, this will, in humans, was also manifested by Human Will, or striving for that life, such as studying, reading, etc. This human will also lead to suffering and strife, for as soon as humans would reach one goal, another set of problems or suffering would appear. In fact, Schopenhauer believed that if humans recognized how much suffering that there is in life and in the world, that they would want to kill themselves. However, if you look at all that suffering and decide to live anyways then you have conquered the will and you will no longer truly suffer. In quite a Buddhist theme, you have become liberated and redeemed from life. More over, there is a sense of passive acceptance, where one realizes to detach themselves from society. This is explained when Schopenhauer states, ?The denial of the will to live does not in any way imply the annihilation of a substance; it means merely the act of non-violation: that which previously willed, wills no more. The will is a philosophical substance that can not be removed or killed. Why is it then that Science can not understand the will as interpreted by Schopenhauer? Schopenhauer believed that the will was an Idea, which was in it's own category. A category different form the a priori and the a posteriori. Science, according to Schopenhauer, is an a priori concept. A priori judgments take sense perception and molds it into a category. Schopenhauer believed that this world of sense perception and categories is a creation of the person or mind who created it. Therefore, Schopenaheur believes that ?the world is a duality of the will and idea.? Science, according to Schopenha uer is concerned with categories and goals and the will for Schopenhauer, has none of these things. The will has no goal and is therefore unablet o be understood by science. Furthermore, the will has no subcomponents or hidden parts, it is simply the will, or the desire to survey. It can not be described in an a priori sense, because it cannot be molded into a category and since Science is an a priori concept, it is unable to explain the will in its sense. Furthermore, the will cannot be molded or shaped, there is no way to destroy the will, it is philosophical, unlike a sensation and therefore, it can not easily be perceived in any light. The medium of science was, according to Schopenhauer, unable to process or mold, the will in it's concept and therefore, is unable to deal with the problems of life. Philosophy Essays

Free Essays on Socialism In Thomas Mores Utopia

In this critical essay, Kleine writes about how More’s Utopia brought about socialism. He also shows how the story of Utopia, whether written about by Plato, Marx, or More, is a socialist place. Utopia is socialist because all Utopians wear the same clothes, all practice agriculture, all live in similar houses in identical towns, how they all speak the same language, and how they all have a standard view of God and call him by the same name. All Utopians are also on the same social class level. There is no differentiation between the princes, magistrates, priests, and the learned in Utopia. The Utopians also wear the same simple material for clothing, and the only demarcation of the status of people is color. The different colors represent the different statuses of people, such as being married, single, a child, a priest, or a slave. Slaves, besides wearing a different color of clothing also wear gold earrings, gold necklaces, gold shackles or chains, a distinguishing badge for their district, have no money, and they have a little piece of one ear cut off, are treated the same as the other Utopians. They are fed from the Utopians food surplus and their wages from working for freemen go straight to the treasury or their labor helps the public, so they always help the public either by the money they earn or by their labor. The people of Utopia also have different occupations depending on what they want to learn. The children are moved to different houses according to their choice of work. Up to 30 people live in the same house, and they share the same or similar occupations. Utopians can also worship in their own way with people of their faith, however they are required to go to a service in which there are no images of God, He is called by the same name by all people, and all prayers are non-denominational. These are the only distinguishing factors between people and everyone respects the other people. Everyone shares t... Free Essays on Socialism In Thomas More's Utopia Free Essays on Socialism In Thomas More's Utopia In this critical essay, Kleine writes about how More’s Utopia brought about socialism. He also shows how the story of Utopia, whether written about by Plato, Marx, or More, is a socialist place. Utopia is socialist because all Utopians wear the same clothes, all practice agriculture, all live in similar houses in identical towns, how they all speak the same language, and how they all have a standard view of God and call him by the same name. All Utopians are also on the same social class level. There is no differentiation between the princes, magistrates, priests, and the learned in Utopia. The Utopians also wear the same simple material for clothing, and the only demarcation of the status of people is color. The different colors represent the different statuses of people, such as being married, single, a child, a priest, or a slave. Slaves, besides wearing a different color of clothing also wear gold earrings, gold necklaces, gold shackles or chains, a distinguishing badge for their district, have no money, and they have a little piece of one ear cut off, are treated the same as the other Utopians. They are fed from the Utopians food surplus and their wages from working for freemen go straight to the treasury or their labor helps the public, so they always help the public either by the money they earn or by their labor. The people of Utopia also have different occupations depending on what they want to learn. The children are moved to different houses according to their choice of work. Up to 30 people live in the same house, and they share the same or similar occupations. Utopians can also worship in their own way with people of their faith, however they are required to go to a service in which there are no images of God, He is called by the same name by all people, and all prayers are non-denominational. These are the only distinguishing factors between people and everyone respects the other people. Everyone shares t...

Greece Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Greece Economy - Essay Example World wars and other local wars highly affect a market and it gives a bad impact on currency and bond of country. They badly affect on asset pricing. During Second World War it has been observed that bond prices of Australia, Japan and United States were badly affected. Other historical events also have a great significance on bonds and other assets. Important events urging U.S civil war has also showed a great impact on bond pricing and asset pricing. Wars highly affect markets and capitals as a result of which bond pricing and assets pricing faces downfall. The New York central exchange is one of the largest bond markets in world and its number of traded issues increased from 1000 to 6000. Currency has a great significance in country's economy. In past few years U.S dollar has faced lots of rise and downfall, same its rise and downfall highly affects U.S economy. Every currency's value and its related factors have direct impact on country's economy. In the past few years, U.S dolla r has been declining and facing troubles in international market with which U.S current account deficit has expanded. U.S. dollar declining and current deficit are linked together tightly. Internal and external environment highly affect on country's currency. Same in case of U.S. dollar in past few years U.S economy and U.S political issues highly affected its currency, that is the only reason U.S dollar is facing number of problems about rates in international market. Deficits only exist if a currency moves above its real exchange rate and such deficit can be removed by real depreciation. Short fall, high returns and other deficit affected a lot on U.S dollar and its rates. These are the basic facts by which U.S dollar has faced a mark able decline in past few years. All above mentioned factors have influenced dollar rate in past few years. All over, the recent and current situation U.S economy has influenced a lot in U.S economy and U.S deficit in past few years. Dollar is an offi cial currency in several parts of world. Dollar also refers as "smaller unit, seneiti, equates to "cent". In number of countries dollar is used as official currency for inner and outer money transaction.In finance, yield curve is a relationship between currency rates and its maturity dates. Treasury securities are closely concerned with yield curves and it is usually plotted on graphs. The curve is commonly known as "the yield curve". Term structure of interest rates" There are three types of yield curves: normal yield curve, steep yield curve, flat or hampered yield curve, inverted yield curve. There are number of theories for yield curve some of them are as follows: Market expectations (pure expectations) hypothesis, Liquidity preference theory, Market segmentation theory, preferred habitat theory. Chosen Currency: Dollar. U.S dollar in an official currency of United States of America, it is generally donated as "$". It is divided in 100 cents. Below is a yield curve of U.S dollar according to rates and date. Yield Maturity Fig: 1. Yield Curve is closely related to economic situations and it also helps a lot in obtaining future economic rates and market activities. This interest line helps a lot in examining the interest rates according to recent currency value and according to its maturity date. The yield curve is specially deigned keeping in mind the needs and current requirements. Yield curve shows current currency decline or rise in

Building an Art Museum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Building an Art Museum - Essay Example Or if we try and become successful in creating some aesthetic and artistic objects, environment, and atmosphere that the people admire and appreciate, we call it an art of doing something. Art does mean to do something or perform something which can be done by any other person like sleeping, drinking, eating or going for an exercise. These are the acts which do not involve mental exceptionality and thus can never be termed as an art. Art means to do something uniquely. â€Å"With the most primitive means the artist creates something which the most ingenious and efficient technology will never be able to create† (Malevich K.). If we go on to recreate nature or realism in context of our own judgments and findings, we are going to perform an art based on our thinking. The basic aim and plan of each and every artist is to depict nature, grab different motions of life, and catch certain facts of nature and to translate those facts by means of paintings, sculptures and drawings. Eve ry artist has his own ideas and the views to see different aspects of nature. The art of translating them in paintings and other models is what we call fine arts. Now, if I talk about my philosophy of art, I would say that art is a creation of ideas related to different aspects of life according to our own thinking and judgments. If we want to achieve something which initially seems difficult, then the process we use to stabilize its difficulty level and then to achieve the desired results on basis of our creative abilities, this is an art of doing something exceptionally. Art doesn’t have any boundaries or limits. It is not restricted to countries, continents or genders. Any person in this world who has a desire to create something or innovate something according to his personal ability, talent and aptitude level, and he successfully achieves his motive, he is an artist. In my view, an art is to make other persons believe in what we create or

John Maynard Keynes Circular Flow Money Modern Macroeconomics Economics Essay

John Maynard Keynes Circular Flow Money Modern Macroeconomics Economics Essay Keynes John Maynard Keynes an economist from Britain. Keynes economic theory was based on circular flow of money. His views and ideas greatly affected modern macroeconomics and social liberalism. In Keynes theory, one persons spending goes towards anothers earnings, and when that person spends her earnings she is, in effect, supporting anothers earnings. This circle continues on and helps support a normal functioning economy. However, the advent of the  global financial crisis  in 2007 has caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought. Keynesian economics has provided the theoretical underpinning for the plans of President  Barack Obama  of the United States, Prime Minister  Gordon Brown  of the United Kingdom, and other global leaders to ease the  economic recession. JMK was given low marks for his views on inflation. His preoccupation with unemployment led him to ignore the issue of inflation completely. Since his death in 1946 his name has been linked to such inflationists slogans as full employment at any cost, and money doesnt matter. It is small wonder that he has been widely perceived as an inflationist and that our present inflation is often described as the legacy of Keynes. Democracy in Deficit : The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes Buchanan and Wagner Lord Keynes himself must bear substantial responsibility for our apparently permanent and perhaps increasing inflation. Without Keynes inflation would not be clear and present danger to the free society that it has surely now become. The legacy or heritage of Lord Keynes is the intellectual legitimacy provided to deficit spending inflation and the growth of government. In reality Keynes deplored inflation warned repeatedly of its evils and recommended restricted demand management policies to prevent it. Keynes strong aversion to inflation is evident in even his earliest work. It appears in his Indian Currency and Finance (1913). There he emphatically rejects the argument that a depreciating currency is advantageous to trade contending that any advantages derived from inflation are only temporary and that they occur largely at the expense of the community and therefore do not profit the country as a whole. In his Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919) he said Lenin is said to have declared that the best way to destroy the capitalist system was to debauch the currency. By continuing process of inflation governments can confiscate, secretly and unobserved an important part of the wealth of their citizens. By this method they not only confiscate but they confiscate arbitrarily and while the process impoverishes many it actually enriches some. He then proceeds to specify at least four ways that rapid inflation works to weaken the social fabric and to undermine the foundations of the capitalist free market system. First, unforeseen inflation he says results in a capricious and totally arbitrary rearrangement of riches that violates the principles of distributive justice. Besides its inequities inflation also renders business undertakings riskier and thereby turns the process of wealth getting into a gamble and a lottery. In generating risk and injustice, inflation strikes not only at security, but at confidence in the equity of the existing distribution of wealth. Second inflation violates long term arrangements based on the assumed stability of the value of money. In so doing, inflation disturbs contracts and upsets all permanent relations between debtors and creditors which form the ultimate foundation of capitalism. Third inflation generates social discontent and directs it against businessmen whose windfall profits are wrongly perceived to be the cause rather than the consequence of inflation. This discontent is exploited by governments which being many of them reckless as well as weak seek to direct on to a class known as profiteers the popular indignation against the more obvious consequences of their vicious methods. In other words governments actually responsible for causing inflation seek to shift the blame onto businessmen who consequently lose confidence in their place in society and become the easy victims of intimidation by government of their own making and a press of which they are proprietors. By making business a scapegoat and target of vilification and control inflation reinforces anti business attitudes and weakens support for what Keynes called the active and constructive element in the whole capitalist society. Finally inflation tends to breed such misguided remedies as price regulation and profiteer-hunting that may do more damage than the inflation itself. Keynes was especially critical of the tendency of governments to resort to price controls which in his view lead to resource misallocation and a reduced supply of goods thereby compounding inflationary pressures. Regarding the dis-incentives to real out-put occasioned by controls he said that the preservation of a spurious value for the currency by the force of law expressed in the regulations of prices contains in itself however the seeds of final economic decay and soon dries up the source of ultimate supply. For by freezing prices at what are likely to be disequilibrium levels controls constitute a system of compelling the exchange of commodities at what is not their real relative value and this not only relaxes production but finally leads to the waste and inefficiency of barter. Keynes concern with the dangers of inflation influenced his policy advice in the post war boom of 1920 when an outburst of inflation threatened the British Economy. Nowhere does Keynes express his concern for inflation more strongly that in the TRACT. There his chief fear is that inflation may retart capital formation and inhibit long term economic growth. He specifies at least three ways that this can happen. He notes first the inflationary disincentive to saving. By eroding the real value of past savings inflation diminishes the capacity of the investing class to save and destroy the atmosphere of confidence which is a condition of the willingness to save. With a smaller portion of national income flowing into saving and investment the rate of capital accumulation falls. And since according to Keynes The national capital must grow as fast as the national labour supply for the maintenance of the same standard of life it follows that a fall in capital growth below the required potential rate will lower the living standards. In short by discouraging saving and capital formation inflation may cause a fall in the aggregate capital/labour ratio and a corresponding drop in labour productivity and output per capita. A second factor regarding capital accumulation is the undercharging of the depreciation during inflation and the consequent inadequate provision for the replacement of worn-out capital. This occurs because depreciation charges on capital equipment are computed on the basis of original cost rather than replacements costs. These replacement costs rise with inflation. Thus when prices rise the depreciation charge calculated on the basis of the original cost are too small to replace the worn-out capital. The result may be an unintended depletion of the capital stock. In such condition said Keynes a country can even trench on existing capital or fail to make good its current depreciation. For it is one of the evils of a depreciating currency that it enables a community to live on its capital unawares. The increasing money value of the communitys capital goods obscures temporarily a diminution in the real quantity of stock. Yet a third adverse effect on capital formation, he noted, is the increased business risk resulting from inflation. For inflation adds to ordinary business risk the extra risk directly arising out of instability in the value of money. To compensate for this extra risk, businessmen add a risk premium to the rate at which they discount the future, and the higher discount rate discourages investment. The discouraging effects of inflation on saving, in-vestment, and growth were not the only inflationary evils described by Keynes in the Tract. Others in-cluded (1) the injustice and inequity resulting from inflationary redistributions of income and wealth, (2) the resort to spurious inflation remedies-e.g., price controls, excess profits taxes, profiteer-hunting and the like-remedies that constitute not the least part of the evils, often doing more harm than the inflation they are designed to cure, and (3) the social resentment and discontent produced by inflation. This resentment, when directed against the business class whose windfall profits are wrongly perceived as the cause rather than the consequence of inflation, works to discredit enterprise and to weaken support for the productive element of society-the prop of society and the builder of the future He notes that unanticipated inflation may temporarily stimulate economic activity by raising profits and profit expectations. Profits rise, he said, because wages and other costs lag behind rising prices during inflation. And with nominal wages lagging behind prices, real wages fall, thus inducing producers to step up their employment of labor. Likewise, the lagged adjustment of market interest rates to inflation and the consequent fall in the real cost of borrowing leads producers to expand their operations. Finally, inflation reduces the real burden of fixed charges, thereby giving a temporary fillip to profits and to economic activity. But Keynes insisted that any such stimulus would most likely be small and short-lived. Moreover it would constitute an undesirable overstimulation of industrial activ-ity requiring undue strain on capacity and a corre-sponding over-exertion of labor. For these reasons he judged the overall benefits to be minimal. Consequently, when Keynes weighed the benefits of inflation against the evils, he found the latter to far outweigh the former and accordingly came down heavily in favor of price stability. He summarized his case for price stability best when he declared that, because inflation is unjust and deflation is inexpedient . . . , both are evils to be shunned. The individualistic capitalism of today, precisely because it entrusts saving to the individual investor and production to the individual employer, presumes a stable measuring-rod of value, and cannot be efficient-perhaps can-not survive-without one It follows, he said, that the government should make price stability its primary policy goal. For, if we are to continue to draw the voluntary savings of the community into investments, we must make it a prime object of deliberate State policy that the standard of value, in terms of which they are expressed, should be kept stable Monetarist Aspects of the Tract The analysis of inflation contained in the Tract has much in common with the position taken by todays monetarists. Specifically, inflation is discussed within the context of an analytical-model that is remarkably monetarist in spirit, embodying such standard monetarist ingredients as (1) the quantity theory of money, (2) the concept of inflation as a tax on real money balances, (3) the monetary approach to exchange rate determination, and (4) the Fisherian distinction between real and nominal interest rates. The paragraphs below summarize Keynes views on these elements in order to demonstrate that he was not the stereotype nonmonetarist caricature of the textbooks. Quantity Theory of Money The Keynes of the Tract was an unequivocal ad-herent of the quantity theory. This theory, he said, is fundamental. Its correspondence with fact is not open to question [7; p. 61]. His own version of the theory as elucidated in the Tract is essentially the same as the modern monetarist version and embodies the following monetarist elements : (1) a money supply and demand theory of price level determination, (2) the notion of money stock exogeneity, implying money-to-price causality, (3) the concept of the demand for money as a stable function of a few key variables, and (4) a focus on the special role of price expectations in the money demand function. Regarding the money supply and demand theory of the price level, he said that two elements determine general prices and the value of money. First, the quantity, present and prospective, of [money] in circulation. Second, the amount of purchasing power which it suits the public to hold in that shape [7; p. xviii]. Elsewhere in the Tract he says that the price level depends on the currency policy. of the government and the currency habits of the people, in accordance with the quantity theory of money Finally, Keynes employed the quantity theory in his policy analysis, arguing (1) that inflation is caused by an excess supply of money, (2) that such monetary excess could stem from falls in money demand as well as from rises in money supply, (3) that the central bank possesses the power to prevent the latter and counteract the former, and (4) that it should employ this power to stabilize prices. For price stability he recommended deliberate countercyclical movements in the money supply to offset or nullify the procyclical impact of changes in money demand on prices. He thought that real money demand fluctuated with the state ofbusiness confidence, falling in booms, rising in slumps, and thereby amplifying cyclical movements of prices. The characteristic of the credit cycle, he said, consists in a tendency of [real cash balances] to diminish during the boom and increase during the depression [7; p. 67]. To counteract these he advocated deliberate monetary contraction in booms and monetary expansion in slumps. The time to deflate the supply of cash, he said, is when real balances are falling . . . and . . . the time to inflate the supply of cash is when real balances are rising, and not, as seems to be our present practice, the other way round [7; p. 149]. In so stating, he rejected the monetarist case for a fixed monetary growth rate rule (which he argued is bound to lead to unsteadiness of the price level when money demand fluctuates) in favor of discretionary monetary management [7; p. 69]. In the modern world of paper currency and bank credit, he declared, there is no escape from a managed currency [7; p. 136]. Note, however, that while he rejected the monetarist case for rules instead of discretion in the conduct of monetary policy, he did voice the modern monetarist complaint that discretionary monetary movements frequently tend to be procyclical rather than countcyclical. That is, he complained that the British monetary authorities had perversely engineered monetary expansions in booms when money demand was falling and monetary contraction in slumps when money demand was rising thereby aggravating rather than mitigating inflation and deflation. These -policy errors notwithstanding, however, he remained a strong advocate of discretionary monetary intervention in the pursuit of price stability. The second monetarist ingredient that Keynes enunciates in the Tract is the concept of inflation as a tax on real money balances. As noted by the late Harry Johnson, this inflation tax analysis constitutes an essential part of the quantity theory approach to inflation. Consistent with that approach, Keynes argues that inflation is a method of taxation which the government uses to secure the command over real resources, resources just as real as those obtained by [ordinary] taxation [7; p. 37]. What is raised by printing notes, he writes, is just as much taken from the public as is a beer duty or an income tax [7; p. 52]. Regarding the inflation tax he says that a government can live by this means when it can live by no other. It is the form of taxation which the public find hardest to evade and even the weakest government can enforce, when it can enforce nothing else [7; p. 37]. In discussing the inflation tax, Keynes stresses that it is a tax on cash balances. The burden of the tax, he says, falls on cashholders, i.e., on the holders of the original . . . notes, whose notes [after inflation] are worth . . . less than they were before. The inflation has amounted to a tax . . . on all holders of notes in proportion to their holdings. The burden of the tax is well spread, cannot be evaded, costs nothing to collect, and falls, in a rough sort of way, in proportion to the wealth of the victim. No wonder its superficial advantages have attracted Ministers of Finance [7; p. 39]. He next explains how inflationary money creation transfers rear resources from cashholders to the government. He notes that a given, say, 25 percent inflation rate requires an equivalent rate of rise of cash holdings just to maintain real money balances at desired levels. To accomplish this, cashholders cut expenditures on goods and services and add the unspent proceeds to money balances. The reduced private outlay for goods and services releases re-sources which the government acquires with newly issued money that is then added to private cash balances. In this way inflation enables the government to appropriate real resources from cashholders just as surely as if it had taken part of their earlier money balances and spent the proceeds on goods and services. How much the government gets depends upon the quantity of real balances the public wishes to hold when the inflation rate is 2.5 percent. Assuming the public desires real balances totaling $36 million, the governments tax take is 25 percent of that sum or $9 million. Or, as Keynes himself put it in discussing the effects of the hypothetical 25 percent inflation tax on real balances of $36 million, by the process of printing the additional notes the government has transferred to itself an amount equal to $9 million, just as successfully as if it had raised this sum in taxation [7 ; p. 39]. Keynes discussion of the inflation tax includes a sophisticated analysis of the optimal rate of inflation from the point of view of maximizing tax revenue. In this connection he makes four points. First, from the formula that tax yield equals tax rate times tax base, it follows that the yield of the inflation tax is the multiplicative product of the inflation rate (tax rate) and real cash balances (tax base), respectively. Second, the tax base is not invariant to the tax rate but falls when the latter rises. That is, when the government raises the tax rate the tax base tends to shrink as people seek to avoid the inflation tax by changing their habits and economizing on real money holdings. Were this not so, said Keynes, there would be no limit to the sums which the government could extract from the public by means of inflation [7; p. 42]. Third, because the tax base shrinks with rises in the tax rate, the government will realize more revenue from a tax rate rise only if it causes a less-than-proportionate fall in the base. A government has to remember, he said, that even if a tax is not prohibitive it may be unprofitable, and that a medium, rather than an extreme, imposition will yield the greatest gain [7 ; p. 43]. Fourth, it follows that there is one inflation rate that maximizes tax revenue and that occurs where the percentage increase in the tax rate equals the percentage shrinkage in the tax base, i.e., where the elasticity of real money demand with respect to the inflation rate is unity. Here is the concept of the tax-maximizing rate of inflation, that plays such a key role in the modern monetarist analysis of inflationary finance. A Treatise on Money (1930) If the Tract is famous for its quantity theory-inflation tax analysis, the Treatise is equally famous for its celebrated fundamental equations of prices and the corresponding distinction between income inflation and profit inflation.8 Constituting the central analytical core of the Treatise, the fundamental equations express price level increases as the sum of two components, namely (1) increases in profit per unit of output, and (2) increases in unit costs of production (chiefly labor costs). Of these two components of price change-namely changes in profit and changes in costs, respectively-Keynes labels the former profit inflation and the latter income inflation. Profit inflation occurs when prices are outrunning costs, leaving a large and growing margin for profit. By contrast, income inflation occurs when wages are rising as fast as prices thereby preventing profit growth. It should be noted that Keynes income inflation does not correspond to what today is called cost-push inflation, i.e., an exogenous rise in wages and hence prices caused, for example, by the exercise oftrade union monopoly power. Rather it is the induced endogenous result of an increased demand for labor and other resources generated by prior profit inflation.9 For, according to Keynes, most income inflations do not stem from autonomous (spontaneous) increases in wages caused by the powers and activities of trade unions [8, p. 151]. Instead they stem from profit-induced rises in the demand for (and hence prices of). labor and other factor resources. That is, a profit inflation. stimulates firms to expand output and hence their demand for factors of production. This leads, to a bidding up of factor prices that raises production costs and generates income inflation. This process continues until wages and other factor prices rise sufficiently to eliminate excess profits.10 Seen this way, income inflations. possess three distinctive features. They occur at the expense of profit inflations, eventually annihilating the latter. They need not cause a rise in prices since they are largely offset by compensating falls in profit inflation. Finally, they are a crucial part of the process that transforms inflation-engendered profits into costs and thereby terminates the. temporary stimulus to economic activity. Having developed the distinction between profit and income inflation, Keynes used it to analyze the effect of inflation on output and economic growth. Regarding these effects he reached two main conclusions. For a recent exposition of the fundamental equations and the corresponding concepts of income and profit inflation, see Patinkin [11; pp. 33-8]. What follows draws heavily from Patinkin. This point is stressed by Patinkin [11; p. 37]. 10 See Keynes [8; pp. 241-2] and Patinkin [11; pp. 37, 45]. First, only profit inflation has the power to stimulate output and growth. It is the teaching of this treatise, he said, that the wealth of nations is enriched, not during income inflations, but during profit inflations . . . at times, that is to say, when prices are running away from costs [9; p. 137]. More precisely, profit inflation stimulates both current and long-term real output. It stimulates current output by raising prices relative to wages thus lowering real wages and increasing employment. And it stimulates long-term real output by shifting income from wages to profit thereby permitting faster capital accumulation and a higher rate of economic growth. In short, the effects of profit inflation include the spirit of buoyancy and enterprise and the good employment which are engendered; but mainly the-rapid growth of capital wealth and the benefits obtained from this in succeeding years [9; p. 144]. These benefits, however, are possible only when prices are outrunning costs, leaving a substantial margin of profit to finance investment and growth. They cannot occur in income inflations where wages rise as fast as prices and thus annihilate the very profits. that constitute both the means and the inducement to economic growth. It follows that income inflation, unlike profit inflation, is incapable of enhancing growth. Second, what matters for investment and growth is how long it takes for profit inflation to give way to income inflation, and this depends on the speed of adjustment of wages to prices. If the interval is short and wages adjust rapidly to prices, then inflation will have little or no impact on capital formation and growth. But if the interval is long and wages adjust slowly to prices, then the stimulus may be considerable and profit inflation, in Keynes own words, becomes a most potent instrument for the increase of accumulated wealth [8; p. 267]. Regarding the interval, Keynes apparently felt that it had indeed been long in particular historical episodes-quite long enough, he said, to include (and, perhaps to contrive) the rise . . . of the greatness of a nation [9; p. 141]. In this connection he advanced the hypothesis that the early industrialization of England and France had been powered by profit inflation. It is unthinkable, he declared, that the difference between the amount of wealth in France and England in 1700 and the amount in 1500 could ever have been built up by thrift alone. The intervening profit inflation which created the modern world was surely worth while if we take the long view [9; p. 145]. Lest one wrongly conclude from the foregoing that Keynes of the Treatise was an out-and-out inflationist, three cautionary observations should be made. First, he was referring to gently rising prices and not to the rapid double-digit inflation that is unfortunately so common today. More precisely, he was referring to slow creeping secular inflation of no more than 1 to 2 percent per year. Today such mild inflation would be viewed as constituting virtual price stability. Second, his analysis of beneficial inflation refers chiefly to capital-poor preindustrial societies and not to wealthy modern capitalist economies.11 Most of his historical examples are taken from the pre-capitalist or early-capitalist era when western Europe was very poor in accumulated wealth and greatly in need of a rapid accumulation of capital [9; p. 145 and 8; p. 268]. Under these conditions it is conceivable that slowly-creeping profit inflation might indeed have spurred industrialization not only by diverting resources from consumption to capital formation, but also by breaking feudal bonds, stimulating enterprise, encouraging market-oriented activity, and widening the scope of the market. These latter benefits, however, are no longer available to wealthy, market-oriented modern capitalist economies that are more likely to find secular inflation a curse rather than a blessing. For this reason Keynes refrained from recommending even slightly inflationary policies for modern economies. Finally, it should be remembered that Keynes was referring to profit inflation characterized by prices persistently rising faster than wages and not to modern inflations in which wages sometimes rise ahead of prices or at least follow them without delay thereby wiping out the profits generated by the price increases.12 As previously mentioned, Keynes held that inflation stimulates growth only if wages lag substantially behind prices leaving a large and persistent margin of profit to finance capital formation. This wage lag, however, is hardly characteristic of modern inflations in which wages rise swiftly not only to restore real earnings eroded by past inflation but also to protect real earnings from expected future inflation. The clear implication is that Keynes would have opposed these modern inflations, which according to his analysis are income rather than profit inflations. Accordingly, it is not surprising that Keynes, at the end of a long passage extolling the historical accomplishments of profit inflation, nevertheless declared, I am not yet converted, taking everything into ac-11 On this point see Haberler [2; pp. 98-100]. 12 See Haberler [2; p. 99]. count, from a preference for a policy today which, whilst avoiding deflation at all costs, aims at the stability of purchasing power as its ideal objective [9; p. 145]. There is no reason to believe that he ever changed that position. On the contrary,. there is strong evidence that he remained a determined foe of inflation and an adamant proponent of price stability even to the extent of warning of the potential danger of inflation in 1937 when the unemployment rate was in excess of 10 percent of the labor force. Articles in The Times (1937) The most convincing evidence of his continuing strong opposition to inflation in the 1930s even after the publication of his celebrated General Theory, appears in four articles he wrote for The Times in early 1937.13 There, in discussing policies for dealing with unemployment at the business cycle peak of 1937, he made it abundantly clear that his primary concern was preventing inflation. In particular, he argued that the 1937 unemployment rate, although very high (indeed, as high as 12 ½ percent), was nevertheless at its minimum noninflationary level at which demand pressure must be curtailed to prevent inflation. Accordingly, he recommended a sharp cutback in government expenditure on the grounds that the economy was rapidly approaching the point where further increases in aggregate demand would be purely inflationary. I believe, he said,. that we are approaching, or have reached, the point where there is not much advantage in applying a further general stimulus at the centre [4; pp. 11, 44, 65]. In so stating, he identified the noninflationary full employment rate of unemployment (NIFERU) below which industrial bottlenecks frustrate the intended output and employment effects of aggregate demand expansion policy so that mainly prices rise.14 Beyond that point, he said, noninflationary reductions in joblessness could only be achieved by specific structural policies designed to lower the full employment rate of unemployment itself. As for the existing high level of that unemployment rate, he attributed it to structural rigidities in the 1. These articles are reprinted and discussed in Hutchison [4]. Unless otherwise noted, all references in this section are to Hutchison. 14 The NIFERU concept also appears in the General Theory where Keynes asserts that! beyond a certain point, structural impediments (a series of bottle-necks) would prevent the noninflationary expansion of output and employment long before full capacity is reached. At the bottleneck point any further increase in aggregate demand would, in his words, largely spend itself in raising prices, as distinct from employment [10; pp. 300-l]. British economy, in particular to a substantial mismatch between the location and skill mix of the labor force and the location and composition of demand. As he put it, the economic structure is unfortunately rigid and this rigidity prevented output and employment from responding to increases in aggregate demand so that only prices rise [4; pp. 11, 65-6]. It follows, he said, that to achieve noninflationary reductions in unemployment we are more in need today of a rightly distributed demand than of a greater aggregate demand [4 ; pp. 11, 66]. In other words, noninflationary reductions in unemployment cannot be obtained by expansionary aggregate demand-management policies but rather require a different technique [4; pp. 11, 14, 44, 66]. To this end he advocated specific structural policies to reduce unemployment on the grounds that noninflationary reductions in unemployment could only be achieved via measures that eradicate structural rigidities and lower the equilibrium unemployment rate itself. In so arguing, he foreshadowed by 30 years the modern monetarist concept of the natural rate of unemployment. He also refuted the popular contention that he was an inflationist who advocated full employment at any cost. That is, his 1937 articles amply demonstrate that, far from being an inflationist, his main consideration was preventing inflation-even at a time when the u

Concepts And Definitions Of Disability Essay

The contemporary conception of disability proposed in the WHO International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) views disability as an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. Disability is the interaction between individuals with a health condition (e.g. cerebral palsy, Down syndrome or depression) and personal and environmental factors (e.g. negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation, or limited social supports). Long ago there was great confusion over the meaning of terms such as impairment, handicap, or disability. Then, in 1980, the WHO provided great service by offering a clear way of thinking about it all in a little book called â€Å"International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps†. All these terms refer to the consequences of disease, but consider the consequences at different levels. The disease produces some form of pathology, and then the individual may become aware of th is: they experience symptoms. Later, the performance or behaviour of the person may be affected, and because of this the person may suffer consequences such as being unable to work. In this general scenario, Impairment was defined as â€Å"any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function.† Impairment is a deviation from normal organ function; it may be visible or invisible (screening tests generally seek to identify impairments). Disability was defined as â€Å"any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.† Impairment does not necessarily lead to a disability, for the impairment may be corrected. I am, for example, wearing eye glasses, but do not perceive that any disability arises from my impaired vision. A disability refers to the function of the individual (rather than of an organ, as with impairment). In turn, Handicap was defined as â€Å"a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from impairment or a disability that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual.† Handicap considers the person’s participation in their social context. For example, if there is a wheel-chair access ramp at work, a disabled person may not be handicapped in coming to work there. Here are some examples: Impairment – Speech production; Disability – Speaking clearly enough to be understood; Handicap – Communication I – Hearing; D – Understanding; H – Communication I – Vision; D – Seeing; H – Orientation I – Motor control, balance, joint stiffness; D – Dressing, feeding, walking; H – Independence, mobility I – Affective, cognitive limitations; D – Behaving, interacting, supporting; H – Social interaction, reasonableness Here is a diagram that suggests possible parallels between the impairment, disability & handicap triad, and the disease, illness and sickness triad. (The squiggly arrows are intended to indicate a rough correspondence) â€Å"Patients do not come to their physicians to find out what ICD code they have, they come to get help for what is bothering them.† A Positive Perspective? Quality of Life and the International Classification of Function The focus on disability takes a somewhat negative approach to health, perhaps not unreasonable since doctors are supposed to cure diseases. But starting in the 1980s clinicians began to set goals to achieve when the disease could not be cured, beyong merely controlling symptoms. The notion of Quality of Life gained prominence as a way to emphasize a positive perspective on health – health as a capacity to function and to live, even if the patient has a chronic condition. A central aim of care was to enhance the quality of the patient’s function, and hence their ability to life as normal a life as possible, even if the disorder could not be cured. This notion was a further extension of handicap, covering maintenance of normal function, but adding psychological well-being and, if possible, positive feelings of engagement. Measurements of quality of life extend the disability focus beyond the ability to perform â€Å"activities of daily living† to include a broad range of functioning (work, home, play) and also the person’s feelings of satisfaction and well-being. This is necessarily a qualitative and subjective concept, judged by the patient in terms of the extent to which they are able to do the things they wish to do. In this medical context, quality of life is distinct from wealth or possessions, and to amke this clear you may see the term â€Å"health-related quality of life.† Reflecting these evolving ideas, the WHO revised its  Impairment, Disability and Handicap triad in 2001, re-naming it the International Classification of Function (ICF). This classification system provides codes for the complete range of functional states; codes cover body structures and functions, impairments, activities and participation in society. The ICF also considers contextual factors that may influence activity levels, so function is viewed as an interaction between health conditions (a disease or injury) and the context in which the person lives (both physical environment and cultural norms relevant to the disease). It establishes a common language for describing functional states that can be used in comparing across diseases and countries. The ICF therefore uses positive language, so that â€Å"activity† and â€Å"participation† replace â€Å"disability† and â€Å"handicap.† The ICF is described on the WHO web site. Impairment, Disability and Handicap Sheena L. Carter, Ph.D. The words â€Å"impairment,† â€Å"disability,† and â€Å"handicap,† are often used interchangeably. They have very different meanings, however. The differences in meaning are important for understanding the effects of neurological injury on development. The most commonly cited definitions are those provided by the World Health Organization (1980) in The International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps: Impairment: any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function. Disability: any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. Handicap: a disadvantage for a given individual that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal As traditionally used, impairment refers to a problem with a structure or  organ of the body; disability is a functional limitation with regard to a particular activity; and handicap refers to a disadvantage in filling a role in life relative to a peer group. Examples to illustrate the differences among the terms â€Å"impairment,† â€Å"disability,† and â€Å"handicap.† 1. CP example: David is a 4-yr.-old who has a form of cerebral palsy (CP) called spastic diplegia. David’s CP causes his legs to be stiff, tight, and difficult to move. He cannot stand or walk. Impairment: The inability to move the legs easily at the joints and inability to bear weight on the feet is an impairment. Without orthotics and surgery to release abnormally contracted muscles, David’s level of impairment may increase as imbalanced muscle contraction over a period of time can cause hip dislocation and deformed bone growth. No treatment may be currently available to lessen David’s impairment. Disability: David’s inability to walk is a disability. His level of disability can be improved with physical therapy and special equipment. For example, if he learns to use a walker, with braces, his level of disability will improve considerably. Handicap: David’s cerebral palsy is handicapping to the extent that it prevents him from fulfilling a normal role at home, in preschool, and in the community. His level of handicap has been only very mild in the early years as he has been well-supported to be able to play with other children, interact normally with family members and participate fully in family and community activities. As he gets older, his handicap will increase where certain sports and physical activities are considered â€Å"normal† activities for children of the same age. He has little handicap in his preschool classroom, though he needs some assistance to move about the classroom and from one activity to another outside the classroom. Appropriate services and equipment can reduce the extent to which cerebral palsy prevents David from fulfilling a normal role in the home, school and community as he grows. 2. LD example: Cindy is an 8-year-old who has extreme difficulty with reading (severe dyslexia). She has good vision and hearing and scores well on tests of intelligence. She went to an excellent preschool and several different special reading programs have been tried since early in kindergarten. Impairment: While no brain injury or malformation has been identified, some impairment is presumed to exist in how Cindy’s brain puts together visual and auditory information. The impairment may be inability to associate sounds with symbols, for example. Disability: In Cindy’s case, the inability to read is a disability. The disability can probably be improved by trying different teaching methods and using those that seem most effective with Cindy. If the impairment can be explained, it may be possible to dramatically improve the disability by using a method of teaching that does not require skills that are impaired (That is, if the difficulty involves learning sounds for letters, a sight-reading approach can improve her level of disability). Handicap: Cindy already experiences a handicap as compared with other children in her class at school, and she may fail third grade. Her condition will become more handicapping as she gets older if an effective approach is not found to improve her reading or to teach her to compensate for her reading difficulties. Even if the level of disability stays severe (that is, she never learns to read well), this will be less handicapping if she learns to tape lectures and â€Å"read† books on audiotapes. Using such approaches, even in elementary school, can prevent her reading disability from interfering with her progress in other academic areas (increasing her handicap). Gale Encyclopedia of Education: History of Special Education Top Home > Library > History, Politics & Society > Education Encyclopedia Special education, as its name suggests, is a specialized branch of education. Claiming lineage to such persons as Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard (1775 – 1838), the physician who â€Å"tamed† the â€Å"wild boy of Aveyron,† and Anne Sullivan Macy (1866 – 1936), the teacher who â€Å"worked miracles† with Helen Keller, special educators teach those students who have physical, cognitive, language, learning, sensory, and/or emotional abilities that deviate from those of the general population. Special educators provide instruction specifically tailored to meet individualized needs, making education available to students who otherwise would have limited access to education. In 2001, special education in the United States was serving over five million students. Although federally mandated special education is relatively new in the United States, students with disabilities have been present in every era and in every society. Historical records have consistently documented the most severe disabilities – those that transcend task and setting. Itard’s description of the wild boy of Aveyron documents a variety of behaviors consistent with both mental retardation and behavioral disorders. Nineteenth-century reports of deviant behavior describe conditions that could easily be interpreted as severe mental retardation, autism, or schizophrenia. Milder forms of disability became apparent only after the advent of universal public education. When literacy became a goal for all children, teachers began observing disabilities specific to task and setting – that is, less severe disabilities. After decades of research and legislation, special education now provides services to students with varying degrees and forms of disabilities, including mental retardation, emotional disturbance, learning disabilities, speech-language (communication) disabilities, impaired hearing and deafness, low vision and blindness, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, and severe and multiple disabilities. Development of the Field of Special Education At its inception in the early nineteenth century, leaders of social change set out to cure many ills of society. Physicians and clergy, including Itard, Edouard O. Seguin (1812 – 1880), Samuel Gridley Howe (1801 – 1876), and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (1787 – 1851), wanted to ameliorate the neglectful, often abusive treatment of individuals with disabilities. A rich  literature describes the treatment provided to individuals with disabilities in the 1800s: They were often confined in jails and almshouses without decent food, clothing, personal hygiene, and exercise. During much of the nineteenth century, and early in the twentieth, professionals believed individuals with disabilities were best treated in residential facilities in rural environments. Advocates of these institutions argued that environmental conditions such as urban poverty and vices induced behavioral problems. Reformers such as Dorothea Dix (1802 – 1887) prevailed upon state governments to provide funds for bigger and more specialized institutions. These facilities focused more on a particular disability, such as mental retardation, then known as â€Å"feeble-mindedness† or â€Å"idiocy†; mental illness, then labeled â€Å"insanity† or â€Å"madness†; sensory impairment such as deafness or blindness; and behavioral disorders such as criminality and juvenile delinquency. Children who were judged to be delinquent or aggressive, but not insane, were sent to houses ofrefuge or reform schools, whereas children and adults judged to be â€Å"mad† were admitted to psychiatric hospitals. Dix and her followers believed that institutionalization of individuals with disabilities would end their abuse (confinement without treatment in jails and poorhouses) and provide effective treatment. Moral treatment was the dominant approach of the early nineteenth century in psychiatric hospitals, the aim being cure. Moral treatment employed methods analogous to today’s occupational therapy, systematic instruction, and positive reinforcement. Evidence suggests this approach was humane and effective in some cases, but the treatment was generally abandoned by the late nineteenth century, due largely to the failure of moral therapists to train others in their techniques and the rise of the belief that mental illness was always a result of brain disease. By the e nd of the nineteenth century, pessimism about cure and emphasis on physiological causes led to a change in orientation that would later bring about the â€Å"warehouse-like† institutions that have become a symbol for abuse and neglect of society’s most vulnerable citizens. The practice of moral treatment was replaced by the belief that most disabilities were incurable. This led to keeping individuals with disabilities ininstitutions both for their own protection and for the betterment of society. Although the transformation took many years, by the end of the nineteenth century the size of institutions had increased so  dramatically that the goal of rehabilitation was no longer possible. Institutions became instruments for permanent segregation. Many special education professionals became critics of institutions. Howe, one of the first to argue for in stitutions for people with disabilities, began advocating placing out residents into families. Unfortunately this practice became a logistical and pragmatic problem before it could become a viable alternative to institutionalization. At the close of the nineteenth century, state governments established juvenile courts and social welfare programs, including foster homes, for children and adolescents. The child study movement became prominent in the early twentieth century. Using the approach pioneered by G. Stanley Hall (1844 – 1924; considered the founder of child psychology), researchers attempted to study child development scientifically in relation to education and in so doing established a place for psychology within public schools. In 1931, the Bradley Home, the first psychiatric hospital for children in the United States, was established in East Providence, Rhode Island. The treatment offered in this hospital, as well as most of the other hospitals of the early twentieth century, was psychodynamic. Psychodynamic ideas fanned interest in the diagnosis and classification of disabili ties. In 1951 the first institution for research on exceptional children opened at the University of Illinois and began what was to become the newest focus of the field of special education: the slow learner and, eventually, what we know today as learning disability. The Development of Special Education in Institutions and Schools Although Itard failed to normalize Victor, the wild boy of Averyon, he did produce dramatic changes in Victor’s behavior through education. Modern special education practices can be traced to Itard, and his work marks the beginning of widespread attempts to instruct students with disabilities. In 1817 the first special education school in the United States, the American Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb (now called the American School for the Deaf), was established in Hartford, Connecticut, by Gallaudet. By the middle of the nineteenth century, special educational programs were being provided in many asylums. Education was a prominent part of moral therapy. By the close of the nineteenth century, special classes within regular public schools had been launched in major cities. These special classes were initially established for immigrant students who were  not proficient in English a nd students who had mild mental retardation or behavioral disorders. Descriptions of these children included terms such as steamer children, backward, truant, and incorrigible. Procedures for identifying â€Å"defectives† were included in the World’s Fair of 1904. By the 1920s special classes for students judged unsuitable for regular classes had become common in major cities. In 1840 Rhode Island passed a law mandating compulsory education for children, but not all states had compulsory education until 1918. With compulsory schooling and the swelling tide of anti-institution sentiment in the twentieth century, many children with disabilities were moved out of institutional settings and into public schools. However, by the mid-twentieth century children with disabilities were still often excluded from public schools and kept at home if not institutionalized. In order to respond to the new population of students with special needs entering schools, school officials created still more special classes in public schools. The number of specia l classes and complementary support services (assistance given to teachers in managing behavior and learning problems) increased dramatically after World War II. During the early 1900s there was also an increased attention to mental health and a consequent interest in establishing child guidance clinics. By 1930 child guidance clinics and counseling services were relatively common features of major cities, and by 1950 special education had become an identifiable part of urban public education in nearly every school district. By 1960 special educators were instructing their students in a continuum of settings that included hospital schools for those with the most severe disabilities, specialized day schools for students with severe disabilities who were able to live at home, and special classes in regular public schools for students whose disabilities could be managed in small groups. During this period special educators also began to take on the role of consultant, assisting other teachers in instructing students with disabilities. Thus, by 1970 the field of special education was offering a variety of educational placements to students with varying disabilities and needs; however, public schools were not yet required to educate all students regardless of their disabilities. During the middle decades of the twentieth century, instruction of children with disabilities often was based on process training – which involves attempts to improve children’s academic  performance by teaching them cognitive or motor processes, such as perceptualmotor skills, visual memory, auditory memory, or auditory-vocal processing. These are ancient ideas that found twentieth-century proponents. Process training enthusiasts taught children various perceptual skills (e.g., identifying different sounds or objects by touch) or perceptual motor skills (e.g., balancing) with the notion that fluency in these skills would generalize to reading, writing, arithmetic, and other basic academic tasks. After many years of research, however, such training was shown not to be effective in improving academic skills. Many of these same ideas were recycled in the late twentieth century as learning styles, multiple intelligences, and other notions that the underlying process of learning varies with gender, ethnicity, or other physiological differences. None of these theories has found much support in reliable research, although direct instruction, mnemonic (memory) devices, and a few other instructional strategies have been supported reliably by research. The History of Legislation in Special Education Although many contend that special education was born with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) in 1975, it is clear that special educators were beginning to respond to the needs of children with disabilities in public schools nearly a century earlier. It is also clear that EAHCA did not spring from a vacuum. This landmark law naturally evolved from events in both special education and the larger society and came about in large part due to the work of grass roots organizations composed of both parents and professionals. These groups dated back to the 1870s, when the American Association of Instructors of the Blind and the American Association on Mental Deficiency (the latter is now the American Association on Mental Retardation) were formed. In 1922 the Council for Exceptional Children, now the major professional organization of special educators, was organized. In the 1930s and 1940s parent groups began to band together on a national level. These groups worked to make changes in their own communities and, consequently, set the stage for changes on a national level. Two of the most influential parent advocacy groups were the National Association for Retarded Citizens (now ARC/USA), organized in 1950, and the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, organized in 1963. Throughout the first  half of the twentieth century, advocacy groups were securing local ordinances that would protect and serve individuals with disabilities in their communities. For example, in 1930, in Peoria, Illinois, the first white cane ordinance gave individuals with blindness the right-of-way when crossing the street. By mid-century all states had legislation providing for education of students with disabilities. However, legislation was still noncompulsory. In the late 1950s federal money was allocated for educating children with disabilities and for the training of special educators. Thus the federal government became formally involved in research and in training special education professionals, but limited its involvement to these functions until the 1970s. In 1971, this support was reinforced and extended to the state level when the Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) filed a class action suit against their Commonwealth. This suit, resolved by consent agreement, specified that all children age six through twenty-one were to be provided free public education in the least restrictive alternative (LRA, which would later become the least restrictive environment [LRE] clause in EAHCA). In 1973 the Rehabilitation Act prohibited discriminatory practices in programs receiving federal financial assistance but imposed no affirmative obligations with respect to special education. In 1975 the legal action begun under the Kennedy and Johnson administrations resulted in EAHCA, which was signed into law by President Gerald Ford. EAHCA reached full implementation in 1977 and required school districts to provide free and appropriate education to all of their students with disabilities. In return for federal funding, each state was to ensure that students with disabilities received non-discriminatory testing, evaluation, and placement; the right to due process; education in the least restrictive environment; and a fre e and appropriate education. The centerpiece of this public law (known since 1990 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA) was, and is, a free appropriate public education (FAPE). To ensure FAPE, the law mandated that each student receiving special education receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Under EAHCA, students with identified disabilities were to receive FAPE and an IEP that included relevant instructional goals and objectives, specifications as to length of school year, determination of the most appropriate educational placement, and descriptions of criteria to be used  in evaluation and measurement. The IEP was designed to ensure that all students with disabilities received educational programs specific to their â€Å"unique† needs. Thus, the education of students with disabilities became federally controlled. In the 1982 case of Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley, the U.S. Supreme Court clarified the level of services to be afforded students with special needs and ruled that special education services need only provide some â€Å"educational benefit† to students – public schools were not required to maximize the educational progress of students with disabilities. In so doing the Supreme Court further defined what was meant by a free and appropriate education. In 1990 EAHCA was amended to include a change to person-first language, replacing the term handicapped student with student with disabilities. The 1990 amendments also added new classification categories for students with autism and traumatic brain injury and transition plans within IEPs for students age fourteen or older. In 1997, IDEA was reauthorized under President Clinton and amended to require the inclusion of students with disabilities in statewide and districtwide assessments, measurable IEP goals and objectives, and functional behavioral assessment and behavior intervention plans for students with emotional or behavioral needs. Because IDEA is amended and reauthorized every few years, it is impossible to predict the future of this law. It is possible that it will be repealed or altered dramatically by a future Congress. The special education story, both past and future, can be written in many different ways.